This description of the Buddha’s location is unique.

Sunakkhatta’s dismal spiritual career began when he met the Buddha in MN 105. In DN 6:5.3 we learn that, after being ordained three years, he spoke of his limited success in meditation. The current sutta and DN 24 deal with Sunakkhatta’s bitter criticisms of the Buddha shortly after his disrobal.

These distinctions are defined in the Vinaya as “absorption, release, immersion, attainment, knowledge and vision, development of the path, realization of the fruits, giving up the defilements, a mind without hindrances, delighting in an empty dwelling” (Bu Pj 4:3.8). They may be summarized as absorption, psychic abilities, and realization of the paths and fruits.

The Buddha taught that logic alone is an unreliable guide to the truth (MN 76:27.2, DN 1:1.34.2), a fact of which Sunakkhatta was apparently not aware.

The Chinese parallel at T 757, rather, raises the question, “How could such a teaching lead to freedom from suffering?”

“Futile man” (moghapurisa) refers to someone who has been led astray by delusion.

“Inference from the teaching” (dhammanvaya) is a valid form of knowledge, where someone draws a reasoned conclusion based on fundamental principles (see SN 12.33:7.2).

The Buddha introduces these here because, as we know from DN 24:1.4.1, Sunakkhatta thought that such displays were a worthy goal of spiritual practice. The Chinese parallel, however, omits the psychic powers and instead has the jhānas. | This passage begins the six direct knowledges.

After the first three of the direct knowledges, the sequence is interrupted with the insertion of these ten powers of a Realized One, also found at AN 10.21 and AN 10.22. The Vibhaṅga, an early Abhidhamma book, gives a detailed explanation (Vb 16:353 ff.). | Five powers are listed at AN 5.11 and six at AN 6.64.

Explained in detail at MN 115:12.1–17.

The Vibhaṅga explains this as knowing the circumstances that prevent or support the fruition of deeds, namely: place of rebirth (gati), form of reincarnation (upadhi, explained by the commentary as attabhāva), time (kāla), and effort (payoga). | See also the analysis of “deeds” (kamma) in MN 57, MN 135, and MN 136.

Expanded below in MN 12:35.1–42.13.

See MN 115:4.1–9.6.

This is not explained explicitly, but an example is found at DN 1:1.3.2, where the Buddha knows the difference between Brahmadatta, who had faith in the triple gem, and Suppiya who did not. Thus adhimutti (“conviction”) means “faith, belief” rather than “disposition”.

Exemplified by the Buddha when he surveyed the world after his awakening to see the diverse spiritual potentials of beings (MN 26:21.2, MN 85:45.4, DN 14:3.6.2, SN 6.1:9.2, Kd 1:5.11.1).

“Corruption” is any mental factor that darkens and diminishes meditation; “cleansing” is anything that brightens and enhances it. “Emergence” refers to understanding the reasons why one comes out of a given state of meditation (eg. MN 43:29.1). | The phrase “absorptions, liberations, immersions, and attainments” indicates that, although they are given various technical definitions, these are overlapping terms that describe in different ways the same field of deep meditation experiences.

Here we return to the final three of the six direct knowledges, which also form the final three of the ten powers.

This seems harsh, but the suttas see such denigration of the Buddha as deeply wicked, since it closes off the path to Nibbana, as at SN 42.9:4.12 where a village chief accuses the Buddha of destroying families by encouraging renunciation. At DN 24:1.16.13 the Buddha warns Sunakkhatta that the naked ascetic Pāṭikaputta, without likewise giving up his speech, thought, and view, will not even be able to enter the Buddha’s presence, much less debate him.

These four “kinds of self-assurance” (vesārajja) are also found at AN 4.8. The first three are included in the Buddha’s dressing down of Sarabha at AN 3.64.

In his first discourse, the Buddha says that he did not claim to be fully awakened until he had understand the four noble truths in all three rounds and twelve aspects (SN 56.11:10.1). | Here nimitta means “reason, ground, basis”.

This was the accusation of Ariṭṭha (MN 22). The Chinese parallel identifies the “obstructions” as desire and lust.

Mentioned also at AN 8.69, DN 16:3.21.3, and DN 33:3.1.139.

AN 8.69 and DN 16:3.21.3 both relate the Buddha entering these assemblies, but neither they, nor the Chinese parallel to this passage, attribute his confidence to the four kinds of self-assurance.

Anekasataṁ khattiyaparisaṁ is singular, “an assembly of hundreds of aristocrats”, rather than “hundreds of assemblies of aristocrats”.

These four, which are absent from the Chinese parallel, describe the births of different kinds of nāga (SN 29.1) and phoenix (SN 30.1).

Compare the three “seeds” of Chāndogya Upaniṣad 6.3.1: beings are born from an egg (āṇḍaja), from a living individual (jīvaja, i.e. “viviparous”), from a sprout (udbhijja, i.e. plants). Expanded to four at Aitareya Upaniṣad 3.3: from an egg, from a membrane (jāruja = jarāyuja, cf. Pali jalābuja), from moisture/sweat (svedaja, cf. Pali saṁsedaja), from a sprout. These are defined at Manusmṛti 1.43–6. The Jain Tattvārtha Sūtra 2.31–5 presents three kinds of birth: congealing (sammūrcchana), uterine (garbha; includes egg and womb), and spontaneous (upapāda, cf. Pali opapātika in the same sense). “Congealing” birth refers to all those not otherwise covered, and thus includes both “mosisture-born” and plants (cf. DN 15:21.2). | The Buddhist list is the only one that does not include plants, as Buddhists believe that consciousness does not take rebirth in plants. The Vedic position is that the soul (ātman) can be reborn in plants (Chāndogya Upaniṣad 6.3.2), while the Jains believed that all things living and not living possess souls (jīva).

This is literally “membranous” reproduction, in reference to the membranes that envelop the fetus.

The asuras (“titans”) are included with the gods in this classification; gods and titans are close enough to allow intermarriage (SN 11.13:11.1). The Chinese parallel, in common with later traditions, adds the titans as a separate realm here.

Here the Buddha describes the process by which he knows where paths lead. First he comprehends their minds, then he infers their destiny, then he confirms the outcome. It is only in this limited way that he knows the future. If, as popular tradition would have it, he was literally omniscient, there would be no need to undertake such a laborious process involving inference, as he could simply directly see whatever he wanted.

Such pits are frequently mentioned in the suttas and must have been a common sight. Since fired bricks were not regularly produced, perhaps they were used for metals or pottery, although kilns are also mentioned (AN 7.66:8.3, SN 12.51:12.1).

Text omits ekanta (“exclusively”), as animals experience both pleasure and pain.

The pain in the ghost realm is not sharp, severe, and exclusive like in hell, nor just sharp and severe as in the animal realm, but merely “mostly painful” (dukkhabahulā vedanā). The pain level is gradually diminishing, and with the human realm it flips, becoming mostly pleasant, then exclusively pleasant in the heaven realms.

Perhaps the tree was in Australia, where the ground is stony, the leaf coverage scanty, and the flies ravenous.

We have met tibba above in the sense of “sharp” feelings. At Mnd 14:58.13, such a forest is said to be one of the four kinds of darkness.

The Buddha evidently introduces this topic because Sunakkhatta was impressed by displays of austerity. It is a unique description of the Bodhisatta’s practices before awakening. The practices, which for the most part sound very Jain-like, were undertaken in various periods during the six years after the Bodhisatta went forth and before his awakening. | The supposedly Jain “fourfold restraint” is recorded at MN 56:12.2 and DN 2:29.2, while at DN 25:16.4 the Buddha reinterprets it as keeping precepts.

“Fervent mortifier” (tapassī), “rough-liver” (lūkha), “one living in disgust of sin” (jegucchī), “secluded” (pavivitta).

Tapas (“ardor, fire. fervor, fervent mortification”) is the raging flame of righteous pain that courses through body when it is pushed to its extremes. This “fervor” burns off the corrupting traces of kamma and defilements. | Buddhist mendicants may not receive food in their hands, nor lick them while eating. Followers of the practices listed here would have walked steadily and randomly for alms, accepting only what was given at the time.

Keeping sheep (eḷaka, for slaughter) goes against the Jain principle of non-violence, as does keeping weapons (daṇḍa). | A musala often means “pestle”, but it can also be a “shovel”; at MN 81:18.12 it is regarded as a virtue to not use one to dig the soil (which is regarded as being alive in Jainism). | Thusodaka is an alcoholic porridge fermented from grain-husks, mentioned alongside sovīraka in the Pali commentaries and Carakasaṁhitā 27g.191.

It is not easy to meaningfully distinguish the various kinds of grain.

All are extremely uncomfortable. Christian ascetics wore a “hair shirt” in order to “mortify the flesh” .

Jain ascetics tear out their hair at ordination, rather than shaving.

Remaining in one posture for months or years at a time is one of the most difficult practices.

The “three times” are daybreak, noon, and dusk, considered the three crucial “junctures” (sandhyā). This seems out of place here. It was a Brahmanical practice (SN 7.21), as the Jains refused to bathe at all, hence the “rough living” of the following section. Indeed, bathing three times a day in the Indian climate would, for most of the year, be quite pleasant. Sometimes, however, it was deliberately done in the cold (Ud 1.9:1.3).

“Rough” (lūkha) is related to the Sanskrit rūkṣa, among the meanings of which is “soiled, smeared, dirtied”.

The Bodhisatta learned mindfulness while doing Jain-like practices and later incorporated it into the eightfold path (see also MN 36:20.7). He also learned mindfulness under Brahmanical teachers (MN 26:15.17). | “Pity” is dayā, which is similar to the more commonly found terms karuṇā or anukampa.

To this day, Jain ascetics carry a soft broom to gently sweep away any insects in their path. | “Unclear ground” (visamagata) is explained by the commentary as ground that is uneven or covered in grass, branches, etc. A lion is said to reflect in the same way when setting out on a hunt (AN 10.21:1.7). | Compare Bhāgavata Purāṇa 5.10.2, where a man carrying a palanquin is so scrupulous about avoiding treading on ants that he stops and starts, making the progress of the palanquin unsteady (viṣama-gatāṁ).

“Seclusion” (viviktaśayyāsana) is classified by the Jains as an “external austerity” (bāhyatapas) at Tattvārthasūtra 9.19.

This concludes the “spiritual path consisting of four factors” of MN 12:44.1.

At Kd 6:14.6.3 the four “great unnaturals” (or “filthy edibles”, mahāvikaṭa) are said to be feces, urine, ash, and clay.

Antaraṭṭhakā (Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit aṣṭaka-rātri) is the coldest part of Indian winter between the festival days that fall on the eighth day after the fullmoon in the two winter months of Māgha and Phagguna. This roughly corresponds with January, the coldest month in northern India.

“Not supernaturally inspired” (anacchariyā) rejects the Vedic “channeling” of scripture from the Divinity, while “not learned before in the past” (pubbe assutapubbā), echoing the Dhammacakkappavattanasutta (SN 56.11:5.1), rejects the oral tradition.

For “village louts” (gāmaṇḍalā), compare aṇḍaka in the sense “nasty, cruel” at MN 41:9.4.

Compare Chāndogya Upaniṣad 7.26.2: “from purity of food there is purity of being; from purity of being there is stable memory (mindfulness); relying on memory there is release from all ties” (āhāraśuddhau sattvaśuddhiḥ; sattvaśuddhau dhruvā smṛtiḥ; smṛtilambhe sarvagranthīnāṁ vipramokṣaḥ).

Āsītika is “eighty-year-old”, kāḷa is “time (of death)” (read kāla), pabba is “joint”.

A view attributed to Makkhali Gosāla (DN 2:21.3). The idea is that transmigration is limited, so one will automatically be released after a certain number of lives.

The gods there are all “non-returners” and will attain arahantship in that realm.

This view and the next appear to be different ways of repeating the same view as before. Perhaps there is a subtle difference between them.

This is, of course, the brahmins.

Again, serving the sacred flame is a fundamental, perhaps the fundamental, rite of the brahmins.

This situates this discourse, and hence the Sunakkhatta cycle as a whole, near the end of the Buddha’s life.

Memory (sati), range (gati), retention (dhiti), and perfect lucidity of wisdom (paññāveyyattiya).

We meet Nāgasamāla in less auspicious circumstances at Ud 8.7, where he stubbornly disagrees with the Buddha on which path to take.

This original title is widely attested in the tradition, being found in some uddāna summary verses in Burmese and Sinhalese manuscripts, Mil 7.5.7:2.1, a Jātaka of the same name (Ja 94), several commentaries, and the Sanskrit and Chinese parallels. The subcommentary says that the name Mahāsīhanāda was given by the redactors.